Presbyterianism is a system of church government through local assemblies of clergy and lay elders of equal rank (known as a classis), in contrast to Episcopacy, whose hierarchy of bishops was regarded by Presbyterians as a "popish" survival of the pre-Reformation church. Presbyterian doctrine is based upon the teachings of John Calvin (1509-64) with its central theme of predestination — everything that happens is pre-ordained by God.
From the mid-16th century, Presbyterianism grew increasingly strong in Scotland where the Kirk was reformed through Calvinism as interpreted in the works of John Knox (c.1513-72). After Knox's death, his work was completed by Andrew Melville (1545-1622) who established the Presbyterian system of church government. The Presbyterians clashed with King James VI of Scotland (James I of England) over the authority of bishops but the General Assembly of the Scottish Church reluctantly accepted the Five Articles of Perth in 1618, which attempted to integrate Episcopacy into the Kirk. James' successor Charles I made further attempts to reform the Scottish Church, resulting in the signing of the Scottish National Covenant in 1638 and the Bishops' Wars of 1639-40.
In order to secure a military alliance with Scotland against the King, the Long Parliament agreed to reform the Church of England along Presbyterian lines under the terms of the Solemn League and Covenant of September 1643. The reforms were debated at the Westminster Assembly and an ordinance was finally passed in March 1646 to set up a limited Presbyterian system in England in which the church was subordinate to Parliament. Presbyterianism never developed into a national system in England; its main centres of influence were London and the south-east, and the north-western counties of Lancashire, Cheshire and Derbyshire.
The "Presbyterian" faction in the Long Parliament sought a negotiated settlement with the King rather than an outright military victory. As the parliamentarian "Peace Party", its members were not necessarily Presbyterian in religion. The general lack of spiritual conviction amongst the English Presbyterians was regarded as a major weakness by their Scottish allies. The Presbyterians were opposed politically by the Independents, and later by the leaders and spokesmen of the New Model Army.
After the ending of the First Civil War, moderate opinion shifted away from the Independents towards the Presbyterians who became the dominant faction in the House of Commons. The Presbyterians mounted a counter-revolution against the Independents during which they attempted to disband the New Model Army, unwisely ignoring the soldiers' demands for payment of arrears and the settlement of other grievances. From this point, the Army became increasingly politicised, with the Presbyterian faction as its main opponent. In the summer of 1647, Army leaders forced the suspension of the Presbyterian Eleven Members from Parliament then occupied London in response to increasing militancy from the Presbyterians and their supporters. This confrontation culminated in Pride's Purge (December 1648), which curtailed Presbyterian influence in the House of Commons and effectively ended the development of a national Presbyterian church in England.
The Second and Third Civil Wars came about through the attempts of Charles I and his son Charles II to form alliances with the Presbyterians. Both promised to impose a Presbyterian religious settlement in England if they regained the throne.
During the Commonwealth and Protectorate, English Presbyterian leaders lived quietly, some in exile. After the fall of the Protectorate and the return of the Purged Parliament in 1659, Presbyterians demanded the reinstatement of the "secluded" MPs who had been excluded at Pride's Purge. When these demands were rejected, some Presbyterians became involved in the conspiracy for a general Royalist insurrection. The design failed, but the Presbyterian Sir George Booth of Cheshire led the only partially successful uprising.
The Purged Parliament was ousted by a military coup in October 1659 but restored two months later, principally through the intervention of General Monck and the army in Scotland. Monck himself favoured a Presbyterian church settlement, with toleration for moderate separatists. Early in 1660, Monck responded to widespread demands for the reinstatement of the secluded MPs. Consequently, the Long Parliament, as constituted prior to December 1648, met for its final session from February to March 1660. The reinstated Presbyterian majority adopted the Confession of Faith formulated by the Westminster Assembly in 1646 and revived an ordinance of August 1648 that divided the counties of England and Wales into Presbyterian classes. The Solemn League and Covenant was ordered to be read once a year in every church and also to be set up in the Parliament House. A powerful group of statesmen known as the "Presbyterian Knot", which included the Earls of Manchester, Northumberland and Bedford, Denzil Holles, William Pierrepoint John Crew and Sir Harbottle Grimston, tried unsuccessfully to impose a conditional Restoration of the monarchy, with terms similar to those offered to Charles I at the Treaty of Newport in 1648.
Although most Presbyterians welcomed the Restoration in 1660, the reforms of the Church of England were quickly revoked under the restored Stuart régime and Episcopacy was re-established. Under the Act of Uniformity (May 1662), all clergymen had to pass three tests or lose their livings: they had to use the revised Book of Common Prayer, to renounce the Solemn League and Covenant and be ordained by a bishop. Hundreds of Presbyterian and non-conformist clergymen were ejected from their livings on St Bartholomew's Day (24 August) 1662 for refusing to comply.